Audience Control and Persuasion

There are many different ways content creators attempt to manipulate their audiences/ participants, and their reasoning is often varied. Cinema and TV aim to manipulate our emotions and beliefs. Live theatre engages and influences, and video game developers subtly control their players to make them do and go wherever required.

In 1896, brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière produced and screened a short silent film that showed a train pulling into a station; their audience responded with fear and panic as they mistook the film for a real train and ran for the exits. This extreme reaction is thought to be the earliest documented study on audience engagement (Bulterman, 2016). There is a lot of skepticism around the validity of this powerful story (Williams, 1995) - but whether it really happened or not, it calls to attention the importance of understanding the targeted demographic and measuring audience engagement. An audience's reaction is the key to a successful performance as "the audience is not only the target of performance content, but is also a vehicle that allows emotions and interest to be spread to a large community" (Bulterman, 2016).

Through the years, experts have offered their own take on the best way to formally assess audience engagement, such as attendance numbers, critical reviews, peer assessments, and knowledge transferred (Radbourne, Johanson, Glow, White, 2009). However, there are others that prefer a more direct form of measurement that records an audience's response during the experience - for example, when and where they laugh and how much they applause (Bulterman, 2016). Professor Bulterman constructed his own informal test that analysed audience behaviour at a 'battle of the bands' event with an applause meter. Bulterman learned that the greatest influential factor in his experiment wasn't the quality of a band's performance, but the order in which it was voted in - whichever band was voted on last had the greatest probability to win as it was concluded that the audience would respond based on the previous level of applause. (Bulterman, 2016).

That specific example highlights the way audience members influence each other (Hess, 2016). The quality of the content was not necessarily interpreted any less or more, however, the acceptable level of enthusiasm was. "When we see other people experiencing an emotion, we can experience it, too" (Hess, 2016). Imitation behaviour is a very common human characteristic and has long been studied by social neuroscientists and psychologists seeking to understand the development of mirror neurons (Farmer; Ciauncia; Hamilton, 2018).

"Mirror neurons give us the ability to understand each other better, show significance of our relationships and share emotions with other people, building a foundation for empathy." (Yarbrough, 2017). This imitative behaviour not only tells us that audience members and participants look to each other for guidance on what to do and how to feel, but that they are also able to be influenced by the content itself.

Cinema and TV creators use psychological techniques such as imitation behaviour to get their audience to engage and empathise with the characters; this is one of the reasons why people cry when they watch a sad film. Furthermore, in an experiment carried out by psychology professor Zak - when a person's brain picks up even the smallest suggestion that someone wants to connect with them - either in the real world or through a screen - it releases oxytocin which correlates with an increase in empathy (Zak, 2009). This is just one of the ways that movies and TV manipulate their audience. In Zak's experiment, he showed his participants a video from a children's hospital in which a father talks about his 4-year-old son's terminal cancer. Those that watched the emotional video had a 47% increase in oxytocin as measured in the blood (Zak, 2009).

Humans are wired to mirror others and as a result of this, when people watch narrative content like a romantic movie, they are left with very real feelings that are tied to that experience. "These feelings can become an emotional standard for us, against which we judge our experiences in the real world" (Stormberg, 2009). This human condition is why so many people see their own life as lacking - because it does not live up to their unrealistic expectations designed by Hollywood.

Theatre and live experiences use similar emotional manipulation techniques to cinema, but when it comes to getting their audience to do things, theatre is able to take a much more personal approach. As aforementioned in a previous blog post, immersive theatre puts the audience first by thinking about them from beginning to end - "how they’re invited in, how they’re engaged, and the degree of their importance to the performance" (Mosser, 2021). An audience’s journey starts even before the play begins as people come to the theatre with their own experiences, moods, and feelings, therefore it’s important to encourage audience members to enter with an open attitude, ready to engage with the piece.

“We don't know what people are coming in with, but we’re providing different doorways for people to come in through” (Mosser, 2021).

How the audience is engaged is the next important step - Psychologists have been studying immersion, engagement, and presence for years, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi believes that each person holds the key to achieving a state of optimal experience called 'flow'. Csikszentmihalyi explains flow as the “state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990); meaning an audience member is so immersed that they stop thinking about other things, all their worries and inhibitions disappear and they are completely present in the moment.

To achieve flow, one must be exempt from any distractions, have clear goals with immediate feedback, no worry of failure and there must be a careful balance of skill and challenge. Too much challenge can lead to high levels of anxiety and too much skill can lead to boredom - “Inducing flow is about the balance between the level of skill and the size of the challenge at hand” (Nakamura; Csikszentmihalyi, 2009).

It is also important to consider the motivation behind the 'flow state'. all conscious decisions require motivation, and there are two foundational motivation types: intrinsic and extrinsic.

Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviour that is driven by internal rewards, such as joy and pride; "the reward is the activity itself" (Santos-Longhurst, 2019). When someone is intrinsically motivated, they engage with something because they enjoy it and achieve personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation occurs when the motivation to succeed is controlled externally, such as via money, fame, grades, and praise. When someone is extrinsically motivated, they do something to gain an external reward (Santos-Longhurst, 2019).

Both can be effective - however, due to the 'overjustification effect' (Cherry, 2020), external rewards have the potential to devalue intrinsic rewards - something that initially feels like play can be transformed into work or an obligation when tied to an external reward. On the other hand, when carefully balanced, external rewards can encourage intrinsic motivation to take over when given early in a task (Santos-Longhurst, 2019).

Video game designers and developers are also very good at emotionally engaging their players; however, what is more contextually interesting is how they design specific and subtle ways that control players.

When players are immersed in open environments that require them to make quick and decisive decisions, developers need to establish systems that point their players in the right direction. Further, there is an important balance that must be considered when doing so; if the clues are too vague players can become lost and frustrated, however, if they are too obvious, they become intrusive and can break the immersion.

The first and most obvious way that developers use psychology to manipulate their players is by using operant conditioning - reinforcement and punishment (Madigan, 2016). This refers to a method of learning where "the consequences of a response determine the probability of it being repeated "(McLeod, 2018). The most famous example of this comes from the man who pioneered this field of research: psychologist B.F. Skinner. As part of his experiment, he placed a hungry rat inside what he called 'the Skinner box', it was then fed every time it pressed a lever. It wasn't long before the rat recognised this pattern and started to take advantage of it (Shrestha, 2017).

The experiment later developed to determine if different patterns of reinforcement would have different effects on the speed of learning and the length of time before the rat stopped pressing the lever altogether (McLeod, 2018). There were 4 other patterns developed and each had different requirements and intervals between the lever being pressed and the food being released, all of which presented different levels of success. For example, ‘variable ratio reinforcement' is where the rat was fed after a random number of presses, much like gambling. Due to the unpredictable nature of this pattern, the extinction rate was slow and the response rate was fast (McLeod, 2018).

There are many ways that operant conditioning is applied in video games. For example, when experience points are awarded for certain tasks, players are able to unlock new abilities, levels, achievements, trophies, and badges. Loot is similarly awarded when players take the time to explore and appreciate their environment. However, it is important to note that players do not respond well to being punished as it can cause frustration and take them out of the immersion. Therefore, the reward system needs to be designed in a way that encourages rather than detriment the players. For example, in most escape rooms, if players are stuck and need help from the host, they do not get time taken away from their countdown, however, if they are able to complete the experience without asking for any clues, they get put onto the wall of fame.

While rewards incentivise players to keep moving forward, navigation tricks tell them where they need to go. Game designer Martin Nerurkar, separates navigational tools into two categories: discrete and immersed (Nerurkar, 2009). The discrete tools are the ones that are part of the Graphical User Interface, for example, maps, compasses, and markers. They are very clear and can offer a lot of information, however, they take up screen space and can break the world immersion. A map is the most common and least subtle method used by developers - it displays the environment in a simplistic and often abstract way to give the player a good overview of the game environment and brings a sense of discovery to the game experience. It is also a great way to offer added information to the player, such as an enemy's location.

However, maps can cause the whole game to come to a halt as the player has to leave what they're doing to bring up the map. Some games have worked to integrate the map into the game itself - for example, 'Uncharted: The Lost Legacy' has the characters physically bring out the map in their hands for the player to look at, without needing to leave the game. However, in games like Shadow of the Tomb raider the player has to leave the game and go to a completely separate screen to access the map.

Compasses, markers, and mini maps play very similar roles in video game navigation and often work together to help the player; they all use integrated graphics within the game to point you in the right direction. However, what sets them apart is that a compass and a mini-map will move with the player, and a marker stays with the world. "The marker displays the target's absolute position while the compass shows its position relative to you" (Nerukar, 2009). They can be used to point players towards missions, people and places of interest, resources, and other points of interaction.

Some gamers complain that heads up displays (HUD), like an on-screen compass, take away from the immersion by including unwanted distractions and condescending guides that tell players exactly where they need to go. However, others find that when there is no assistance on screen they are forced to repeatedly leave the game to access the menu, which breaks the world immersion and constantly reminds the player that they are playing a game on a 2D screen.

an immersive tool is a part of the game environment; they don't stand out as much as discrete tools and are not considered as part of the interface (Nerurkar, 2009). They are much more subtle and work almost subconsciously; however, this also means that they are at risk of being overlooked by players.

Psychologist Susan Weinschenk states in her book the importance of central and peripheral vision. In the context of designing a game and/or experience, the players' central vision should include all the narrative-dependent elements that designers want players to see; the peripheral vision should be the context-setter and validator of central vision (Weinschenk, 2001). The question is, how do you make sure that the player is looking at the central vision of the game? Many developers take inspiration from art composition techniques to attract the players' attention. These include the use of colour, light, and motion.

In her book, Weinschechnk also talks about chromostereopsis - a visual illusion that happens when certain colours are placed alongside together and give a perception of depth (Thompson; May; Stone, 1993). For example, Mirror’s Edge by DICE uses the colour red to direct players through the different levels by marking pathways with red objects, like ladders. Furthermore, once a player has been trained to be on the lookout for red objects, they will start to notice them everywhere and will be able to fly through the game without even having to think about what direction they're going in. When deciding what colour to use it is important to first consider the rules of colour - e.g. red objects appear closer to the observer than blue objects. Secondly, no matter what colour is chosen, the developer needs to be consistent in their choice.

Light is used in a very similar way to colour but uses visual contrast to catch the players eye - the higher the contrast, the more likely a player will notice the area; "light coming into a dark room from a doorway will attract the player's eye and that makes him a lot more likely to approach the doorway" (Nerurkar, 2009). Light is often used in real-life scenarios too, such as theme park rides where light is used to mark exits. A very common way that designers test the effectiveness of the light and colour in their level is by doing a 'squint test'. It's very simple: load the design on-screen, take a step back, and squint - the primary focus should still be clear (Gothelf, 2001).

The way that motion works is based on how the eyes and brain work. The eyes naturally focus where they see movement. The Uncharted games use this subtly, both as foreshadowing tools and navigational guides (Iyer, 2017). For example, in 'Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception' during a fast-paced rooftop chase - which requires the player to think quickly - the designers put an animation of moving birds in the distance to inform the player in plenty of time where the player needs to go.

"These are often used in linear level design in complicated rooms to make it clear where the player has to move in order to continue" (Nerurkar, 2009). The idea is to make the target area look more important and therefore interesting so that the player subconsciously chooses to move towards where the developer wants them to be.

Another way video games direct their players to where they want them to go is through the use of in-game guides such as signs. This method clearly leads the player along to where they need to go; they also fit in well with the visual style and theme. However, this does mean that they are the opposite of subtle, and often quite large (Nerurkar, 2009).

When playing Valve's 'Portal', the player is guided through a very complex puzzle with helpful posters, exit signs, and glowing lines that all match the lab-style setting. This helps players connect logical conclusions to complete the game. Further, Valve was able to use these navigation tools to display as much information as possible. For example, Valve shows the connection between a button and a door by connecting them with a coloured glowing line; these lines also offer the player information about the interactive objects and what state they are in. e.g. button A opens door B and when button A is pressed the line will change colour ( Nerurkar, 2009). A tool like this is most useful in a non-linear environment where there are multiple different places of importance to reach; especially if the environment is complex with lots of different points of interest.

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In conclusion;

There are many different types of psychological techniques I can use as a creative and developer to manipulate my participants. Such as imitation behaviour, Csikszentmihalyi's 'flow', operant conditioning as well as navigational tools - both discrete and immersive. All of which are feasibly transferable for a live gaming experience. It is important that I factor all of these in when designing and developing my immersive experience as they will play a critical and (hopefully) unseen role in the final piece.

By understanding why an audience reacts a certain way, creators and developers are able to use their content to manipulate and control. Therefore I will need to repeatedly test my content with different participants in order to measure the audience engagement. I will also take part in similar experiences and make note of my own engagement to learn from other companies. I want to give my attention to understanding how someone who is tech-literate is able to interact with my experience as opposed to how someone who is tech-illiterate; for example, how do these two types of audience members navigate the space using the AR application?

I also want to find out how well the narrative interweaves in an interactive environment. Favoured approaches to measuring audience feedback include questionnaires, interviews, biometric feedback, body language evaluation, and implicit action evaluation (Bulterman, 2016).

Firstly, if I want to encourage my participants to act a certain way and feel certain things then it is imperative that I emotionally engage them using the same techniques as discussed by Professor Zak. I want my participants to really care about the characters in the piece; therefore I need to find a way to get their brains to release oxytocin. In response to the aforementioned experiment carried out by Zak I am led to believe that to emotionally engage the participants I need to encourage empathy by having my characters show vulnerability and representing familiar themes and feelings.

Further, I can use imitation behaviour to encourage my participants to carry out a certain action; if part of the experience requires the audience to perform an action, I need to show the audience that it is acceptable to perform this action. For example, if the audience needs to destroy an object to progress, I can do this by showing them a video of a similar object being smashed, or have an actor in the room with them smash an object. However, with reference to this example, I would have to ensure that I don't encourage participants to smash all the objects in the room in the hope that they find a clue. I recently played an escape room which awarded the participants with achievements; after we forced entry into a locked box we were given an achievement for 'brute force'. As a result of this, we spent the rest of the game forcing our way through the puzzles, as opposed to trying to solve them.

Furthermore, to facilitate an environment in which participants can reach ‘flow’, it is crucial that when designing the puzzles for the escape room I do not make them too difficult or too easy. Thus, I must test and evaluate the puzzles against a range of participants. I must also remove any distractions such as social media - this will be difficult as my participants will need to use their phones to interact with the experience. To solve this issue I will supply my own device(s) for the participants to use, this will also solve any issues related to distributing the AR app across participants. I must further make sure that they understand what their goals are and offer immediate feedback from the puzzles and clues that they solve. This will be easy to implement as it will be obvious to a participant when they have successfully solved a puzzle - this is because it will reveal another clue and lead them further into the investigation. Furthermore, I will have to take away the opportunity of failure -it is expected that the participants will make mistakes, but the second they feel like they have failed, they will lose their drive. Therefore, it's important to keep the participants feeling optimistic.

I know I must establish clear goals for my participants and reward them quickly and satisfyingly after each puzzle is completed. With these puzzles, I must encourage joy and play through the different ways my participants can interact with the immersive experience. This will hopefully turn their motivation from extrinsic to intrinsic. There are many elements that inspire intrinsic motivation, but the three that are most relevant to my project are curiosity, cooperation, and control. Curiosity pushes us to explore for the joy of learning, cooperating and helping others satisfies our need to be a part of a community and control comes from our desire to control what happens around us and make consequential decisions that affect an outcome (Santos-Longhurst, 2019). These are all elements that can easily be included in an escape room environment where participants have to search for clues by working as a team and making decisions together.

A great way to teach and guide the participants through the experience is to use operant conditioning. I can easily implement rewards into my project by offering tools and mechanics that help my participants complete the experience when they complete certain actions. For example, when participants solve a puzzle a specific way, they unlock extra time on the count down; or if they find a hidden easter egg in a place most would not think to look, they are presented with a lock pick kit. This is a great example of an external reward encouraging intrinsic motivation as it will incentivise participants to continue playing and thinking outside the box whilst letting them know they are on the right track.

With regards to navigation, I personally prefer a HUD as opposed to no HUD; as someone who likes to look for hidden treasures and easter eggs when playing a game, I have to constantly flick between the map and the game. When the map is integrated into the game, I am able to have a much smoother experience. I have also found that the brain gets used to seeing the HUD and phases it out. When thinking about how I can incorporate navigational tools for my personal project - developing a HUD for my AR app invites a lot of opportunities for both me as a creator and my participants. It can continue to point them in the right direction by offering subtle clues that inform the participant if they are getting 'warmer' or 'colder', and highlight points of interaction and show a countdown of the timer. However, I would have to make sure that when AR footage is being played, that the HUD either disappears or becomes more subtle as I would not want to distract my participants when important information is being revealed.

I can also use the immersive tools (colour, light, motion) to help navigate my participants - for example, I can use colour to connect all the interactive elements within the space, such as putting a yellow trim on all of the photo frames to suggest that they can all be scanned using AR. I can use light to highlight the desired central vision by putting subtle spotlights on what I want my participants to look at. I can also use light in conjunction with motion as I can flicker lights to grab their attention away from something else. Further, I can use wind or strings to move certain objects I wish participants to look at. These will not only help my participants get started but also they will continue to guide participants when they feel stuck. Some of these methods will require programming, such as setting up a system that makes the lights flicker, perhaps I can do it live using projection and Isadora software. This will offer even more opportunity for interactivity as I can make it so that audience members trigger certain effects; something that is very achievable with Isadora.

Finally, It will be very easy for me to create in-game guides that support my participant's experience; since the space is a crime scene, these can be as simple as police notes around the room and evidence markings. I could then use these police notes as image targets for my AR application, giving them the potential to offer twice as much information. Image targets have to be simple, specific, and unique, therefore I will need to try out a few different contenders to get the best outcome; which means the earlier I start developing the AR app, the better!

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